CONTOH MAKALAH SPOOF TEXT

Introduction

A.     Spoof Text

                                                  

Definition and Social Function of Spoof

Spoof is a text which tells factual story, happened in the past time with unpredictable and funny ending. Its social function is to entertain and share the story.

Generic Structure of Spoof

·        Orientation; is a opening part which tells us the issue or the problem that will be solved or told in the story. Orientation gives us the important thing about the characters and their problems.

·        Events; parts where the story explained into paragraphs that linked each other. Events are not limited into one or two scene or act. Events also adds more specific problems that happened, explains how the problems raise, and the dilema.

·        Twist; (will be explained). Twist can only be found in spoof texts.

What is twist?

This question is likely to answer what is the difference between narrative text and spoof. However, according to wikipedia, a twist ending is a plot twist occurring near or at the conclusion of a story, an unexpected conclusion to a work of fiction that causes the audience to reevaluate the narrative or characters.There are three common types of twisting ending :

1.      Humorous Twist

Many stories have twist with a happy, amusing, or heartwarming ending. It is funny and makes reade amused. Humorous twist ending sometime is called Lighthearted twist.

2.      Ironic Twist

Stories with a twist or surprise at the end do not necessarily have to have ahappy ending. Many have been written that have an ironic twist. This ironic twist ending often reveal something about the darker side of human nature. In other word ironic twist is tragic.

3.      Misconception Twist

A narrator who has incorrect information built around their own perception of events that they pass along can build an unpredictable ending. The ghost who doesn’t know he or she has died, the robot who feels human emotions, the narrator who does not know they are a mannequin in a store are some ways to create a twist based on faulty or withheld information.

Language Feature of Spoof

·        Focusing on people, animals or certain things.

·        Using action verb; ate, ran, etc.

·        Using adverb of time and place.

·        Told in chronological order.

  

Discussion

A spoof text is amusing. It is really entertaining as well as educating. A spoof text can be very simalar to narrative, recount or even news item. All are mostly composed in past tenses mode. A spoof text is arranged in the generic structure of orientation, events, and twist. Because of this “twist” (an unpredictable ending), the story seems very funny. Take a look on the following example of spoof text.

Story 1. What time is it?

       A tramp lie down and sleep in the park. He had been sleeping for about 5 minutes when a couple walked by. The man stopped, woke the tramp up , and asked him, "Excuse me. Do you know what the time is?" The tramp replied, "I'm sorry - I don't have a watch, so I don't know the time."The man apologized for waking the tramp and the couple walked away.

       The tramp lay down again, and after a few minutes went back to sleep. Just then, a woman, who was out walking her dog, shook the tramp's shoulder until he woke up again.
The woman said, "I'm sorry to trouble you, but I'm afraid I've lost my watch - do you happen to know the time?" The tramp was a little annoyed at being woken up again, but he politely told the woman that he didn't have a watch and didn't know the time.

       After the woman had gone, the tramp had an idea. He opened the bag that contained all his possessions and got out a pen, a piece of paper and some string. On the paper, he wrote down, 'I do not have a watch. I do not know the time'. He then hung the paper round his neck and eventually dropped off again.

     After about 15 minutes, a policeman who was walking through the park noticed the tramp asleep on the bench, and the sign around his neck.

       He woke the tramp up and said, "I read your sign. I thought you'd like to know that it's 2:30 p.m."

Generic Structure Analysis

·        Orientation : a tramp sleep in the park.

·        Event 1 : a couple walk by and ask him the time, but he doesn’t know it because he doesn’t have watch.

·        Event 2 : a woman walk with her dog and ask him about the time, politely he say that he doesn’t know it.

·        Event 3 : the tramp get an idea to write down 'I do not have a watch. I do not know the time'  so people will stop ask him about the time and won’t  disturb him.

·        Twister : a policeman was misunderstood, he wake up the tramp and then tell him about the time.

This is another example of spoof text. This story is funny, humorous, and twisting. The story has unpredictable ending through organizing the tricky plot. Take a look.

Story 2. The Perfect Husband?

       Several men are in the locker room of a golf club. A cell phone on a bench rings and a man engages the hands-free speaker function and begins to talk. Everyone else in the room stops to listen.

Man                        : "Hello."

Woman                   : "Honey, it's me. Are you at the club?"

Man                        : "Yes."

Woman                  : "I'm at the mall now and found this beautiful leather coat. It's
                               only $1,000. Is it OK if I buy it?"

Man                         : "Sure, go ahead if you like it that much."

Woman                   : "I also stopped by the Mercedes dealership and saw the new 2007
                               models. I saw one I really liked."

Man                        : "How much?"

Woman                   : "$80,000."

Man                        : "OK, but for that price I want it with all the options."

Woman                   : "Great! Oh, and one more thing. The house we wanted last year is                                back on the market. They're asking $950,000."

Man                        : "Well, then go ahead and give them an offer, but just offer $900,000."

Woman                   : "OK. I'll see you later! I love you!"

Man                        : "Bye, I love you, too."

       The man hangs up. The other men in the locker room are looking at him in astonishment. Then he smiles and asks: "Anyone know whose phone is???!!!"

Generic Structure Analysis

·        Orientation : a cell phone in the bench inside of the golf club’s locker room rings, a man engages the hands-free speaker function and begins to talk so that everyone else in the room stops to listen.

·        Events : conversation happened between the man and a woman in the phone, the woman asks much money to spend for what she wants, and the man just agreed her wishes.

·        Twist : at the end of their conversation, all man look at the “perfect” man in astonishment, but the man smile and ask, “Anyone know whose phone is?”

      

Reading a spoof text can be very interesting as it has an unpredictable plot of the story. There will be a tricky "arrangement". As we build understanding of the plot to certain condition, a spoof text will be ended with a special contradictory ending.

Teaching Suggestion

Here are suggestions readers can use for teaching spoof text ;

1.      Let students listen the example of a text without telling whether it is spoof text.

2.      Ask students what kind of text it is.

3.      After students understand if it is spoof text, give and explain the purpose of spoof text, the structure, the languange features, and more examples.

4.      Give students more examples of spoof text and ask to read it.

5.      After asking them to read it, teacher may explain the way how to write spoof text.

6.      Teacher may give score and evaluate their writing.

Here are methods and techniques teacher can use for teaching spoof text :

1.      Reciprocal

2.      EGRA ( Exposure, Generalization, Reinforcement, Application ).

Conclusion

Spoof is a text which tells factual story, happened in the past time with unpredictable and funny ending. Its social function is to entertain and share the story. In spoof text, there are orientation, events, and twist. There are 3 types of twist : humorous, ironic, and  misconception. There are several languange features in spoof text such as focusing on people, animals or certain things, using action verb, using adverb of time and place, told in chronological order. Techniques and methods teacher can use for teaching spoof text are reciprocal and EGRA.

References

Anderson, Mark and Anderson, Kathy, Text Types in English, South Yarra: Macmillan Education Australia, 1997.

Cambridge, Dictionary of American English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Erla Wimanistya, Rahayu Apriliaswati, Eusabinus Bunau. Improving Students’ Ability to Comprehend  Spoof Text Using Reciprocal Technique. English Education Study Program FKIP Untan, Pontianak.

Harmer, Jeremy, The Practice of English Language Teaching, England: Pearson Education Limited, 2001, Ed. 3rd . ------------------- , How to Teach Writing, England: Pearson Education Limited, 2004.

http://jurnal.untan.ac.id/index.php/jpdpb/article/viewFile/9157/9085

CONTOH MAKALAH GREENBERG SIX-WAY CLASSIFICATION

INTRODUCTION

There is a long tradition in linguistics that treats the basic word order of the subject, object, and verb as a fundamental typological parameter, that treats the question of whether a language is SOY, SYO, YSO, YOS, OYS, or OSY as one the most important things to know about a language. The term basic word order is used in various ways by different linguists, often without an apparent awareness that it is being applied to different notions. The characterization of basic word order by Hawkins (1983) is representative of criteria assumed by many linguists: he uses a set of different criteria, all of which tend to correlate with each other, though none of them are necessary properties. These include the most frequent order, the order that occurs in the broadest set of syntactic environments, and the order that is unmarked by a variety of other markedness criteria. But apart from the description of particular languages, the notion of basic word order has played its most significant role in identifying the orders of various pairs or sets of elements that provide the empirical basis for the crosslinguistic generalizations originally discussed by Greenberg (1963) and pursued in works by various people (e.g. Lehmann 1973, Vennemann 1976, Hawkins 1983, Dryer 1992). Whatever the merits of the various criteria discussed by Hawkins, the fact remains that the empirical basis for these generalizations has largely been statements in grammatical descriptions which describe one order of some pair or set of elements as the normal order or the most common order. In other words, while criteria other than frequency may typically correlate with the most frequent word order, a large body of descriptive literature provides statements regarding the apparent relative frequency of different orders, but very little evidence regarding other criteria, excepting that for many languages, like English, one order is so clearly basic by all criteria that no questions arise.

GREENBERG’S THEORY

Greenberg was not explicit as to his criteria for assigning a basic order to a language, but it appears that he was motivated primarily by that language’s canonical order. For example, his first universal appealed to declarative sentences with nominal subject and object (1963:77) and he classified German and Chinese as SVO, the most frequent order in those languages in main clause declaratives, despite the facts that those languages also manifest SOV order.

            Many of the typological generalization in the greenberg paper wee based on correlations with these six basic orders, thought the rarity of languages in which the object precedes the subject prevented him from saying much about other typological mproperties of languages with these three orderings. So, for example, he showed that three are robust correlations between basic word order and whwther a language has prepositions, as in table 1.

Table 1 Correlations between word order and

Adopsition order (Greenberg 1963)

	VSO	SVO	SOV
Preposition	6	10	0
postposition	0	3	11

Most typologists since Greenberg have, continued to assume the six-way typology and to base it primarily on canonical orde. A typical examples is Tomlin (1986). This work attempted to calculate the percentages of each language in terms of basic (that is canonical) order and went on to propose functional explanations for the statistical break-down (table 2).

Table 2 Proportions of basic con-

stituency orders (Tomlin 1986)

Word order	Languages
	Number	%
SOV	180	45
SVO	168	42
VSO	37	9
VOS	12	3
OVS	5	1
OSV	0	0
Total	402

           

Given the apparent usefulness of the notion ‘canonical word order’, one might assume that most uttered sentences in most languages would be canonical. Such is emphatically not the case, however. It has been demonstrated that in the spoken language, sentences with a subject, a verb and an object, where the two arguments are full lexical items, are a minority in all languages and a tiny minority inmany languages. Rather, what one finds is what Du Bois (1985) calls ‘Preferred Arguments Structure’, namely a verb with one full argument, which is typically either the subject of an intransitive verb or the object of a transitive verb.

Consider even English, which is not a null-subject language and is widely considered to be rigdly SVO. A corpus of 20,794 senteces from 2400 telephone converations between unacquainted adults included only 5975 ( 29 per cent ) that were SVO.

The usefulness of canonical order over Preferred Argument Structure for typological purposes can be appreciated by a look at two languages in which object pronouns and full object NPs are in complementary distribution – French and Chichewa. In those language, pronouns precede the main verb, lexical Nps follow it. Given that pronoun-V sequences are more frequent in discourse than V-full NP sequences, one might be tempted to predict that French and Chichewa would manifest OV typological correlations. Such is not the case however; both languages are robustly VO in their correlations. (Willems, Defrancq, Colleman, Noel : 2003).

EXAMPLES

1. VSO. Examples of languages with VSO word order include Semitic languages (including Arabic, Classical Hebrew, and Ge'ez  (Classical Ethiopic)), and Celtic languages (including Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish and   Breton), and many Mesoamerican languages.

Example of Arabic : يقرأ المدرس الكتا (yaqraʼu l-mudarrisu l-kitāba). Verb-Subject-Object.

2. SVO. Languages regarded as SVO include Berber, Bulgarian, Chinese, English, Estonian, Filipino, French, Italian, Portuguese, Quiche, Romanian, Rotuman, Spanish, Swahili, Thai, Vietnamese, Yoruba and Zulu.

Example of English : She loves him. Subject-Verb-Object.

3. SOV. This pattern is used by Adyghe and Basque.

Example of Basque : Enekok sagarra ekarri du. Subject-Object-Verb.

4. VOS. Commonly cited examples include Austronesian languages (such as Malagasy, Old Javanese, Toba Batak and Fijian) and Mayan languages (such as Tzotzil).
5. OSV. OSV is used by Korean, Japanese, Arabic, atc.

Example of Japanese : 그사과는 내가 먹었어요 . Object-Subject-Verb.

6. OVS. This pattern is used by Turkish, Dannish, Finnish, etc.

Example of Turkish : Bardağı kırdı John. Object-Verb-Subject.

CONCLUSION

In linguistics, word order typology is the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a language, and how different languages can employ different orders. Correlations between orders found in different syntactic sub-domains are also of interest. The primary word orders that are of interest are the constituent order of a clause – the relative order of subject, object, and verb; the order of modifiers (adjectives, numerals, demonstratives, possessives, and adjuncts) in a noun phrase; and the order of adverbials.

Some languages use relatively restrictive word order, often relying on the order of constituents to convey important grammatical information. Others—often those that convey grammatical information through inflection—allow more flexibility, which can be used to encode pragmatic information such as topicalisation or focus. Most languages, however, have a preferred word order.

Most nominative–accusative languages—which have a major word class of nouns and clauses that include subject and object—define constituent word order in terms of the finite verb (V) and its arguments, the subject (S), and object (O).

There are six theoretically possible basic word orders for the transitive sentence: subject–verb–object (SVO), subject–object–verb (SOV), verb–subject–object (VSO), verb–object–subject (VOS), object–subject–verb (OSV) and object–verb–subject (OVS). The overwhelming majority of the world's languages are either SVO or SOV, with a much smaller but still significant portion using VSO word order. The remaining three arrangements are exceptionally rare, with VOS being slightly more common than OSV, and OVS being significantly more rare than the two preceding orders. These six-way classification were developed by Joseph H. Greenberg.

REFERENCES

Dryer, Matthew S. 1989. Discourse-governed word order and word order typology. Belgian Journal of Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Du Bois, John W. 1987. The Discourse Basis of Ergativity. Language 63: 805-855.

Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements. Cambridge. Mass: MIT Press.

Hawkins, John A. 1983. Word order universals. New York: Academic Press.

Lehm Dryer, MatthewS. 1983. Coos word order. Paper delivered at the Western Conference on Language. Eugene: Oregon.

Lehmann, Winfred P. 1973. A structural principle of language and its implications. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Tomlin, Russell. 1986. Basic Word Order: Functional Principles. London: Croom Helm.

Vennemann, Theo. 1976. Categorial grammar and the order of meaningful elements. In: Juilland, A. (ed).  Saratoga, California: Anma Libri.

Willems, Dominique., Defrancq, Bart., Colleman, Timothy., Noel, Dirk. 2003. Contrastive Analysis in Languange. Palgrave: New York.

Winfred P. 1978. The great underlying ground-plans. Austin: University of Texas Press.

http://wings.buffalo.edu/linguistics/people/faculty/dryer/dryer/Dryer6Way1997.pdf

https://archive.org/details/universalsoflang00unse

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_order